Exploring the origins of identity fusion: Shared emotional experience activates fusion with the group over time.

Identity fusion is a visceral feeling of oneness with a group, known to strongly motivate extreme pro-group behaviour. However, the evidence on its causes is currently limited, primarily due to the prevalence of cross-sectional research. To address this gap, this study analysed the evolution of fusion in response to a massive collective ritual, Korrika-a race in support of the Basque language-, over three time periods: before (n = 748) and immediately following participation (n = 402), and 7 weeks thereafter (n = 273). Furthermore, we explored the potential mediating roles of two key factors: perceived emotional synchrony, a sense of emotional unity among participants that emerges during collective rituals, and kama muta (moved by love), an unexplored emotion in relation to fusion, which arises from feelings of shared essence. The proportion of fused participants increased significantly after participation and remained stable for at least 7 weeks. Perceived emotional synchrony and kama muta apparently explained the effect of participants' behavioural involvement in the ritual on subsequent fusion, but only among those who were not previously fused with Korrika participants. We conclude that emotional processes during collective rituals play a fundamental role in the construction of identity fusion.

Emociones autoconscientes relacionadas con el cuerpo y la apariencia y sintomatología de trastornos de la conducta alimentaria en una muestra de hombres adultos / Body and appearance-related self-conscious emotions and eating disorder symptoms in a sample of adult men

Abstract: In recent years, the number of men suffering from an Eating Disorder (ED) has increased. However, very few studies on ED have been conducted in samples of men. This paper aims to shed some light on this issue by exploring the following questions in a sample of adult men: 1) to analyse the relationships between body and appearance-related self-conscious emotions and ED symptomatology and, 2) to study the differences between a group of men who are at risk of developing an ED and another group of men who are not at risk of developing an ED in body and appearance-related self-conscious emotions. A total of 207 Spanish or Latin American men aged 18-50 years participated. Men who were at risk of developing an ED had more body shame and body guilt than those who were not at risk. However, no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups in body pride. These findings show that, unlike in women, body pride does not seem to play as important a role in these disorders as body shame or body guilt.

Resumen: En los últimos años, ha aumentado el número de hombres que padecen un Trastorno de la Conducta Alimentaria (TCA). Sin embargo, apenas se han realizado estudios sobre TCA con muestras de hombres. Este trabajo pretende arrojar algo de luz a este respecto, explorando las siguientes cuestiones en una muestra de hombres adultos: 1) analizar las relaciones entre las emociones autoconscientes asociadas al cuerpo y a la apariencia y la sintomatología de TCA y, 2) estudiar las diferencias entre un grupo de hombres que están en riesgo de desarrollar un TCA y otro grupo de hombres que no presentan dicho riesgo en las emociones autoconscientes asociadas al cuerpo y a la apariencia. Participaron 207 hombres de entre 18 y 50 años de nacionalidad española o latinoamericana. Los hombres que estaban en riesgo de desarrollar un TCA presentaron más vergüenza corporal y culpa corporal que aquellos que no tenían dicho riesgo. Sin embargo, no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ambos grupos en el orgullo corporal. Estos hallazgos muestran que, a diferencia de lo que ocurre en mujeres, el orgullo corporal no parece desempeñar un papel tan relevante en estos trastornos como el que tienen la vergüenza corporal o la culpa corporal.

Korrika, running in collective effervescence through the Basque Country: A model of collective processes and their positive psychological effects.

The neo-Durkheimnian model suggests that feedback and emotional communion between participants during a collective gathering (i.e., perceived emotional synchrony: PES) is one of the key mechanisms of collective processes. This shared emotional experience gives rise, in turn, to more intense emotions, this being one of the explanatory models of the positive psychological effects of collective participation. Through a quasi-longitudinal design of three measurement-times (N = 273, 65.9% women; age: 18-70, M = 39.43, SD = 11.64), the most massive social mobilization that is celebrated in favor of the Basque language in the Basque Country (Korrika) was analyzed. Repeated measures and sequential mediation analyzes supported the model. The effect of participation on social integration was mediated by the increase in emotions of enjoyment through PES; the effect on social acceptance, social contribution, and social actualization was mediated by increased kama muta through PES; the effect on collective empowerment was mediated by the increase in self-transcendent emotions through PES; and the effect on remembered well-being was partially mediated by PES. Finally, it was also verified for the first time that the effect of participation on social integration, social acceptance and social actualization was maintained through PES (but not through emotions) for at least 6-7 weeks after the event ended. Also, it is concluded that Kama muta is a relevant emotion during collective gatherings.

More Pride When Remembering Imagined Difficult Moral Actions and Less Pride When Actually Imagining Doing Them?

In a previous study of moral pride carried out with adolescents, a paradoxical effect was observed: more costly imagined prosocial behaviors generated less pride. The aim of this study was to analyze whether this effect disappears in retrospect. Participants were 188 adolescents aged between 14 and 16 (96 girls) who were given diverse scenarios in which someone needed help. In some of the scenarios, providing this help required participants to either go against the majority or incur some other kind of personal cost. One group received scenarios set in the present (data from the previous study mentioned above) and the other received scenarios set in the past. Although participants were not randomly assigned to one of the two conditions, all came from the same social context. All participants were asked to state how proud they would feel if they helped. The hypothesis was confirmed: while in the present both imagined prosocial behaviors which involved going against the majority and those that involved other costs generated less pride, when the scenarios were presented in the past, they generated more pride. These results suggest that while moral pride may have a limited reinforcing effect in the present, its retrospective effect is greater.

Basque Ethnic Identity and Collective Empowerment: Two Key Factors in Well-Being and Community Participation.

Social identity is a factor that is associated with well-being and community participation. Some studies have shown that ethnic identity goes along with empowerment, and that interaction between the two leads to greater indices of well-being and community participation. However, other works suggest a contextual circumstance (i.e., perceiving one's own group as a minority and/or being discriminated) may condition the nature of these relations. By means of a cross-sectional study, we analyzed the relations of social identification (or identity fusion) and collective psychological empowerment with personal well-being, social well-being and community participation in a sample of Basques. A total of 748 Basques participated (63.1% women; age M = 39.28; SD = 12.13). Individuals who were highly identified or fused with Basque speakers and who were highly empowered showed higher indices of well-being (both personal and social) and of community participation than non-fused individuals with low empowerment. The results also suggest that social identification (or identity fusion) offsets the negative effects of perceiving the group as a linguistic minority. Collective psychological empowerment proved to be an especially relevant factor that needs to continue to be explored.

Moral Pride: A Paradoxical Effect Also Present in Young Adults?

Moral pride acts as an intrinsic reinforcement of moral behavior. However, a study with adolescents revealed a paradoxical effect: prosocial behaviors which involved either going against the group majority or other personal costs (dedication of time and effort, a possible punishment, etc.) generated less, not more, moral pride, indicating that moral pride is weakened just when it is needed most. Does this effect reflect a specific characteristic of adolescent morality or a relatively stable weakness in moral functioning? The aim of the present study was to determine whether or not this effect continues beyond adolescence. The sample was made up of 152 young adults, 78 women and 74 men. Participants were given 8 scenarios in which someone needed help (two for each combination of the two variables considered: going against the majority and other costs) and were asked how proud they would feel if they helped. Among this age group, the negative effect of other costs was reversed (higher costs, more pride); that of going against the majority had weakened, but had not been reversed. Women scored higher for moral pride than men.

Coping strategies and emotion regulation in adolescents: Adequacy and gender differences / Estrategias de afrontamiento y de regulación emocional en adolescentes: adecuación de las mismas y diferencias de género

The aims of this study were to analyze which coping strategies are more adequate and which are less adequate during adolescence and to examine any gender differences observed in this respect. Participants were 762 adolescents aged between 16 and 18. To assess coping strategies, an adaptation of the Responses to Stress Questionnaire was used. To assess whether or not the coping strategies used were adequate, three indexes were used: decrease in anxiety, satisfaction with oneself and improvement in relationships. The correlational analyses revealed significant positive correlations between the three indexes and the coping strategies generally considered to be positive, and significant negative correlations between the indexes and coping strategies generally considered to be negative. The results also revealed that girls and boys tend to use different coping strategies. These results are consistent with those found in previous studies

Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron analizar qué formas de afrontamiento son más adecuadas y cuáles menos adecuadas en la adolescencia y analizar las diferencias de género al respecto. En el estudio participaron 762 adolescentes de edades comprendidas entre los 16 y los 18años. Para evaluar las estrategias de afrontamiento se utilizó una adaptación delResponses to Stress Questionnaire. Para evaluar la adecuación de las estrategias de afrontamiento se utilizaron 3 índices: disminución de la ansiedad, satisfacción con uno/a mismo/a y mejora de las relaciones. Los análisis mostraron correlaciones significativas positivas entre los 3 índices y las estrategias de afrontamiento habitualmente consideradas positivas y correlaciones significativas negativas entre los índices y las estrategias de afrontamiento habitualmente consideradas negativas. Por otro lado, los resultados mostraron que las chicas y los chicos difieren en las estrategias de afrontamiento. Estos resultados son coherentes con lo encontrado en estudios previos

Antecedents of moral pride: the harder the action, the greater the pride?

The study’s aim was to analyze if some specific types of action generate higher levels of moral pride. Three variables were analyzed: whether the actions involved going against the group majority, whether they involved a personal cost of a different kind and whether they were the result of a prior intention. Participants were 160 adolescents aged between 14 and 16. Sixteen scenarios were designed (two for each combination of the three variables) in which someone needed help. Half of the participants were presented with 8 of these scenarios, and half with the other 8. In each scenario, participants were asked to state what they would feel and do and how much pride they would feel if they helped. Curiously enough, both prosocial behaviors which involved going against the majority, F(1, 140) = 60.36, p = .001, η2 = .301 and those which involved a personal cost of a different kind, F(1, 140) = 10.17, p = .002, η2 = .068 generated less moral pride (AU)

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Gender differences in emotions, forgiveness and tolerance in relation to politicall violence

This study, which forms part of a broader research project, analyzes gender differences in: the intensity of diverse emotions, the justification of violence, attitudes towards the terrorist group ETA, forgiveness and tolerance. Participants comprised 728 people (45.5% men and 54.5% women) resident in either Basque Country or Navarra (Spain), representative of all national identities and political ideologies existing in this context. An ad hoc questionnaire was designed and administered between November 2005 and February 2006, a short time before ETA declared a ceasefire. Women reported more intensity in fear for political reasons and scored higher in two of the six measures of empathy included in the study (empathy with prisoners and empathy with those who suffer and think like oneself). Men scored higher in positive emotionality, indifference and Schadenfreude. Women perceived apology and forgiveness as more necessary elements for achieving peace than men. These results suggest that it may be beneficial for women to play a more prominent role in relation to the resolution of intergroup conflicts such as the one existing in the Basque Country (AU)

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Antecedents of moral pride: the harder the action, the greater the pride?

The study's aim was to analyze if some specific types of action generate higher levels of moral pride. Three variables were analyzed: whether the actions involved going against the group majority, whether they involved a personal cost of a different kind and whether they were the result of a prior intention. Participants were 160 adolescents aged between 14 and 16. Sixteen scenarios were designed (two for each combination of the three variables) in which someone needed help. Half of the participants were presented with 8 of these scenarios, and half with the other 8. In each scenario, participants were asked to state what they would feel and do and how much pride they would feel if they helped. Curiously enough, both prosocial behaviors which involved going against the majority, F(1, 140) = 60.36, p = .001, η2 = .301 and those which involved a personal cost of a different kind, F(1, 140) = 10.17, p = .002, η2 = .068 generated less moral pride.

Gender differences in emotions, forgiveness and tolerance in relation to political violence.

This study, which forms part of a broader research project, analyzes gender differences in: the intensity of diverse emotions, the justification of violence, attitudes towards the terrorist group ETA, forgiveness and tolerance. Participants comprised 728 people (45.5% men and 54.5% women) resident in either Basque Country or Navarra (Spain), representative of all national identities and political ideologies existing in this context. An ad hoc questionnaire was designed and administered between November 2005 and February 2006, a short time before ETA declared a ceasefire. Women reported more intensity in fear for political reasons and scored higher in two of the six measures of empathy included in the study (empathy with prisoners and empathy with those who suffer and think like oneself). Men scored higher in positive emotionality, indifference and Schadenfreude. Women perceived apology and forgiveness as more necessary elements for achieving peace than men. These results suggest that it may be beneficial for women to play a more prominent role in relation to the resolution of intergroup conflicts such as the one existing in the Basque Country.

¿Puede considerarse la culpa un índice de sensibilidad interpersonal? / Can guilt be considered an interpersonal sensitivity index? Interpersonal reactivity and interpersonal guilt

¿Puede considerarse la culpa un índice de sensibilidad interpersonal? Para responder a esta cuestión, se analizó la relación de la culpa interpersonal con la toma de perspectiva y la preocupación empática. Además, se analizó la relación de dicha culpa con otra variable de reactividad interpersonal: el malestar personal. Adolescentes, jóvenes y adultos de ambos sexos respondieron a una prueba de culpa interpersonal elaborada ex profeso y al IRI (Davis, 1980). La toma de perspectiva mostró una asociación significativa con la preocupación empática en los dos sexos y los tres grupos de edad; a su vez, ésta mostró poder predictivo sobre la culpa interpersonal en los dos sexos y en dos grupos de edad. Estos resultados apoyan los planteamientos de Hoffman (2000) y permiten considerar la culpa, al menos parte, como un índice de sensibilidad interpersonal. Además, el malestar personal mostró poder predictor sobre la culpa interpersonal en los dos sexos y los tres grupos de edad. Ello sugiere que, en este tipo de culpa, unto con la empatía se activa un componente ansioso, lo cual es congruente con el modelo bifactorial de la culpa propuesto por Etxebarria y Apodaca (2008) (AU)

Can guilt be considered an interpersonal sensitivity index? To answer this question, the study analyzed the relationship between interpersonal guilt and perspective taking and empathic concern. Furthermore, it analyzed the relationship between interpersonal guilt and another interpersonal reactivity variable: personal distress. Adolescents, young people and adults of both sexes answered a test expressly designed to measure interpersonal guilt as well as the IRI (Davis, 1980). Perspective taking showed a significant correlation with empathic concern in both sexes and the three age groups, and empathic concern showed predictive power on interpersonal guilt in both sexes and two age groups. These results support Hoffman´s theory of interpersonal guilt (2000) and enable us to consider guilt, up to a certain point, as an interpersonal sensitivity index. Furthermore, personal distress showed predictive power on interpersonal guilt in both sexes and the three age groups. This result suggests that, in this kind of guilt, together with empathy, an anxious component is also activated, which is congruent with the bi-factorial model of guilt proposed by Etxebarria and Apodaca (2008) (AU)

Intensity of habitual guilt in men and women: differences in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency towards anxious-aggressive guilt.

In this study we analyzed gender differences in the intensity of habitual guilt, as well as those in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency towards experiencing feelings of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component. The 360 participants (adolescents, young adults and adults) were asked to relate one of the situations that most frequently caused them to experience guilt and to rank its intensity and that of 9 other emotions they may have experienced at the same time on a 7-point scale. These scales were used to obtain the scores for the anxious-aggressive component of guilt. Two interpersonal sensitivity measures were used: the IRI Empathic Concern scale and an ad hoc measure focusing on the guilt produced by interpersonal events (Interpersonal Guilt). Habitual guilt was found to be more intense in women than in men in all age groups. The results suggest that this difference is linked to differences in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency to experience types of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component.

Intensity of Habitual Guilt in Men and Women: differences in Interpersonal Sensitivity and the Tendency towards Anxious-Aggressive Guilt

In this study we analyzed gender differences in the intensity of habitual guilt, as well as those in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency towards experiencing feelings of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component. The 360 participants (adolescents, young adults and adults)were asked to relate one of the situations that most frequently caused them to experience guilt and to rank its intensity and that of 9 other emotions they may have experienced at the same time on a 7-point scale. These scales were used to obtain the scores for the anxious-aggressive component of guilt. Two interpersonal sensitivity measures were used: the IRI Empathic Concern scale and an ad hoc measure focusing on the guilt produced by interpersonal events (Interpersonal Guilt). Habitual guilt was found to be more intense in women than in men in all age groups. The results suggest that this difference is linked to differences in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency to experience types of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component (AU)

Se analizaron las diferencias de género en intensidad de la culpa habitual, así como en sensibilidad interpersonal y tendencia a experimentar formas de culpa con un alto componente ansiosoagresivo. Se pidió a los 360 participantes -adolescentes, jóvenes y adultos de ambos sexos- que relataran una de las situaciones que más frecuentemente les hacían experimentar sentimientos de culpa, y que señalaran en escalas de 7 puntos, junto a su intensidad, la de 9 emociones más que podían experimentar al mismo tiempo. A partir de estas escalas se obtuvieron las puntuaciones del componente ansioso-agresivo de la culpa. Se utilizaron dos medidas de sensibilidad interpersonal: la escala de Empathic Concern del IRI y una prueba ad hoc de culpa provocada por situaciones interpersonales (Culpa Interpersonal). La culpa habitual era más intensa en las mujeres que en los varones en los tres grupos de edad. Los resultados sugieren que estas diferencias responden a diferencias en sensibilidad interpersonal y en la tendencia a experimentar formas de culpa con un alto componente ansioso-agresivo (AU)